Environmental Impact Assessment and Life Cycle Analysis

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) are complementary procedural and analytical tools that translate environmental science into project approvals, product-design decisions, and regulatory practice. EIA is a prospective decision-support process established in national and international law to identify, evaluate, and communicate the environmental effects of proposed development activities before approval. LCA, standardised through ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, evaluates environmental burdens across the life-cycle of a product, process, or activity, from raw-material extraction and manufacturing through use and end-of-life management. This chapter examines the scientific and procedural foundations of both tools, including EIA stages, life-cycle inventory, life-cycle impact assessment, midpoint and endpoint characterisation, principal LCIA methods, software platforms, and the evidence supporting integrated EIA - LCA approaches. Applications in energy systems, construction, waste management, agriculture, transport, and industry illustrate how expanding system boundaries can improve environmental decision-making while also introducing uncertainty, data, and interpretation challenges.